Sex’ vs ‘Sexuality

Assembling an Understanding of ‘Sex’ Verses ‘Sexuality’ â€Å"Biologists and psychologists who have accepted the doctrine that the only natural function of sex is reproduction have simply ignored the existence of sexual activity which is not reproductive† Alfred Kinsey (The Invention of Sexuality 40) The terms ‘sex’ and ‘sexuality’ have not always had a clear differentiation, but as the study of sexuality (sexology) has continued and become more commonly studied and recognized, these terms have adapted their own definitions.However, each does not have a perfect definition, because people will have their own opinions regarding the terms. The above quote by a historian of sex was interesting to me because it brings up the aspect of biology within the understanding of the terms ‘sex’ and ‘sexuality’. My personal idea, or understanding, is that ‘sex’ constitutes the more biological side†” ones physical features, gender, reproduction (‘sex’ is also the abbreviation for sexual intercourse); and the term ‘sexuality’ makes up everything else that surrounds an individual’s definition of their sexual identity, orientation, and feelings.When reading articles online, I came across this quote: â€Å"sexuality is about who or what you are attracted to, not where you put your dick† (bitheway), which I found to be a very blunt but interesting way to think about what constitutes ‘sexuality’. â€Å"Where you put your †¦Ã¢â‚¬  is your personal preference, but that preference is a compilation of the aspects of one’s personal world and how they have come to define and understand their individual inclination. All of the parts that are compiled in order to form ones individual definition are aspects of ‘sexuality’ within our culture.Another page online gives definitions for ‘sex’ and Ã¢â‚¬Ë œsexuality’ that I have found to be the most clear and complete: Sex refers to whether or not a person is male or female, whether a person has a penis or vagina. Sexuality refers to the total expression of who you are as a human being, your femaleness or your maleness†¦ Your sexuality is an interplay between body image, gender identity, gender role, sexual orientation, eroticism, genitals, intimacy, relationships, and love and affection†¦ includes his or her attitudes, values, knowledge and behaviors.How people express their sexuality is influenced by their families, culture, society, faith and beliefs. (Sex and Sexuality: Understanding the Differences) The influence from all aspects of our lives that guide us to define our sexuality is a major component in sexology. The italicized words in the definition above are some I think are very significant in understanding what constitutes ‘sexuality’.Since the study of sex started to dramatically change, there has been more understanding within so many topics of sexuality, such as gender (roles and variance), marriage and the family, homosexuality, heterosexuality, bisexuality, intersex, trans-gender/sex/vestite, evolution of sexual identities, legal and medical regulation, religious roles/codes, phallocentricism, women’s bodies and health, illegitimacy, â€Å"and the importance of social networks and oppositional sexualities† (The Invention of Sexuality 39).This is only the first week that I have studied sexuality and culture in an educational environment, and after enjoying many sources of new material I have begun to compile my own understanding of ‘sex’ and ‘sexuality’, which is just the beginning of my learning on the subject. One of the most important aspects to take away from these introductory lessons is how grand of a role society and culture have on sexuality.It is so important to be aware of and take into account culture’s influen ce on sexuality now and within the history of sex. In our US society (and this is a generalization) some vital influences are class, race/ethnicity, gender, age, family history and how one was raised, physical ability, religion and region. Now that I have collected a better understanding of ‘sex’ and ‘sexuality’ as educational terms, I can further my knowledge of everything that makes up sexuality within cultures around the world.Bitheway. Sex Verses Sexuality. Bi The Way: An exploration of Male Bisexuality. 6 May 2008. http://www. bitheway. co. uk/2008/05/06/sex-versus-sexuality/. Sex and Sexuality: Understanding the Differences (Learning Activity). RECAPP 2007-2009. http://www. etr. org/recapp/index. cfm? fuseaction=pages. LearningActivitiesDeta il&PageID=167 The Invention of Sexuality. Sexual Lives: A Reader on the Theories and Realities of Human Sexualities. McGraw-Hill, 2003.

LGBT and the country of Belize

A person being gay in his own country is not a choice. We don’t choose to be gay. I sure didn’t choose to be, not to say that it is a bad thing. If it were a choice to be gay, I could choose to be straight the day after or bisexual a couple months after that. The whole concept of being lesbian, gay bisexual or transgender should not scare anyone. Its because people don’t understand that the individual is the same person he or she knows and loves. Just because their sexual preference is different does not mean that you should hate them or avoid them. That kind of stuff actually hurts a person mentally, speaking from experience. United Belize Advocacy Movement (UNIBAM) is a movement fighting for equality in Belize. The law does not protect sexual orientation or gender identity. The criminal code states that â€Å"carnal intercourse† with any person â€Å"against the order of nature† shall receive a punishment of 10 years' imprisonment. In practice the law was interpreted as including only sex between men. The extent of discrimination based on sexual orientation was difficult to ascertain due to lack of reporting instances of discrimination through official channels. UNIBAM the country's sole lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender advocacy organization, reported that continuing harassment and insults by the general public and police affected its activities, but its members were reluctant to file complaints. There were no gay pride marches organized during the year due to UNIBAM membership concerns over the public's possible adverse reaction. In December 2011, Barack Obama criticized nations that persecute homosexuals. In response, Hon. Dean Barrow, prime minister of Belize, reiterated, â€Å"Belize would not change its anti-homosexuality stance. â€Å"He argued that the issue is one for Belize to deal with and if the U. S. wanted to punish states by removing foreign aid for continuing such practice, then they will have to cut off their aid. † When will it actually be dealt with? It is not fair that we get to suffer worse than those who are, as they say, â€Å"normal†. I only have my friends and my family to keep me sane in this country. I had to grow up being ridiculed for having feminine features. Others bullied LGBT persons in high school; hate crimes being committed against the LGBT community. It is all so sad. Some of them say that Belize is not that bad, when in reality they are just in denial. Belize has too much ignorant close-minded assholes to even comprehend what it’s like. I thank God for my friends and family everyday for being so accepting and loving me for who I am. It’s not that I hate my country Belize; it’s just that I hate some of the people that make up the country’s population. Being gay in this country is nothing nice at all. We have to live in fear if we do something wrong that society doesn’t like so we don’t get shot in the head or beaten to death. All I want for my country is for everyone to live peacefully and not to discriminate anyone for loving who they want. For me it doesn’t matter who you are or where you come from or how much money you have in your pocket. When people talk about you to your face or behind your back, and when you feel bullied can you be brave enough to not give a fuck about what they say and just be yourself? A very inspiring woman said that and I live by it everyday.

Describe a time you set a goal higher than you thought you could Essay

Describe a time you set a goal higher than you thought you could achieve. Explain the steps you took to achieve your goal. What was the outcome What did you learn from the experience - Essay Example Therefore, I set myself a goal of shedding 10 kilograms every week. Unfortunately, I could not achieve this target, which got me so devastated and the motivation to reduce my weight was fast waning. I realized that I was not regulating my calorie intake because I was still stuck with too much junk food. I also tried to lose weight by skipping meals, which did no good to my health. I had to review my goal and set practical ways of shedding excessive weight. I created a schedule, which included adequate gym time with guidance of a gym instructor and also set diet timetable with the help of a nutritionist. The result was so amazing. Every week I lost at least 1 kg, which was positive result towards achieving my goal. I realized that success demands specific, measurable, attainable, relevant and time Bound objective. I also realized that too high and unachievable objectives demoralize people while too easy goals undermine ones

Goal setting for college Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Goal setting for college - Essay Example Mainly, these small or short duration targets act as motivating aspects and reminder of long-term accomplishments in the future, for instance, career (Van, 2012). It is a meticulous self-evaluation and comparison against any set targets, which an individual intends to commit oneself in attaining them. Mainly, this entails an individual recognizing his or her fallibility and devising effective strategies meant to attain what one desires (Van, 2012). It is the way of questioning the obvious or humanity’s conventional way of thinking and brainstorming with an intention of coming up with new perspectives meant to attain a set target (Halonen & Santrock, 2013). This allows an individual to develop numerous perspectives whose core purpose is to meet their goals (Halonen & Santrock, 2013). This is a belief of an individual that basic abilities develop through commitment. Therefore, challenges or failures usually avail an individual chances to learn from own mistakes and rectify them with an intention of repositioning themselves to reach high heights. The process entails addressing all underlying concerns that may prompt an individual fail to attain his or her potential. Hence, enable one to operate from a â€Å"logical thinking mode† instead of emotional. Accomplishing of any goal entails one to prepare effectively and as necessitated. This encompasses proper goals’ setting besides meticulous scrutiny of oneself with the intention of developing a strong growth mindset. This knowhow will help me to plan and attain my set targets with ease, hence become successful in life. Since, I will be able to plan well and even utilize the acquired skills from this exercise to succeed almost in all

Continuity in film making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Continuity in film making - Essay Example Continuity is a task for all the production team as it has to be maintained at all levels of the production team. From the script supervisor, film director to the most important touch in postproduction - the editor, continuity is important. By identifying the connections that form continuity among the production team members, it can minimize the number of errors that usually occur in the production of a film. There are too many production team members to describe each and every connection in detail. In this thesis, the focus is on the director and the editor. This will allow us to go through the preproduction process, the postproduction process, and most importantly the understanding and the ability to identify the responsibilities, of each team member at each stage of production. Although not including many of the individual pieces, to get a better understanding of the basic cinematographic process I have included a basic description of the overall process. Visuals are pictures and sequences of motion pictures is a film, which captures the motion or action, so the camera by recording these events, does its job. The person who controls the camera is the cameraman. This person is in charge of moving the camera in predetermined directions which can serve the purpose of achieving the best shot is taken. The director provides the direction, how the camera moves or what should be shown in the frame gate, based on their interpretation of the script of the story, provided by the script writer. After completing the shots and sequences, the editor gathers the footage and compiles them in a way that they match and gives the feel for the entire footage. The editor is also responsible for matching the sequences shot, which gives the illusion of continuity. Justification of the Research To create a motion picture, regardless of expertise of the crew, there is a requirement to achieve continuity. Continuity requires more attention and especially during a large film productio n as it requires script, budget, and equipment. All of these processes have to be combined together to make a film. It is a complex process and can involve a large number of people to work together in a film project. One fact is that, no matter how easy it is to see the movie or a motion picture, it is a much more complicated process especially when it gets to the structure of making it. Historically films have been made by three main countries; Great Britain, France, and the United States. It hasn’t been until the last couple of decades that other countries such as India have joined in the cinema field with successes. Not only have other countries joined in the film making business, but so have amateur filmmakers with low budgets and fresh ideas. The growth of the motion picture making around the world is expanding and most of the developers are young which means the future of filmmaking is bright. The growth of video making is exponential, especially with the advent of Yout ube.com and the fact that at any time in 2012 most people have at least one camera at their house. Many of those individuals would like to tell a story, so to tell a story visually the fact of continuity has to be present. As the visual creation needs to be in the right composition angle and camera movement, all of data collected has to gather to tell a cohesive story. Methodology and Case Study A focused theoretical

The Maryknoll Missioners Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Maryknoll Missioners - Research Paper Example His mission on earth was full of love and compassion for people. He dedicated his life to protect the weak and stand for the truth. From this, one can articulate that, mission work began with Jesus Christ. Since then, Jesus followers received a mission of spreading love and compassion to all people as a vital aspect of making disciples of all nations. To this point, it stands out that, the work of a missioner entails a lot such as, teaching and preaching the word of God, protecting the weak, leading the captives free, and giving gifts to men among others. In a way, missionary work is referred to as the great commission described in Matthew 28:18-20 of going forth and making men disciples of all nations, baptizing them, and teaching them the word of God. Throughout history, Maryknoll has emphasized missionary and ministry work particularly in Korea, China, Africa, East Asia, and Latin America. Up-to-date, these missioners have played a significant role in the Catholic Church, in allev iating poverty, and enhancing constructive changes to many lives. With this regard, the following paper seeks to discuss the Maryknoll missioners as well as their impact on people’s lives. MARYKNOLL MISSIONARIES A brief history As mentioned earlier, Maryknoll was founded as a Catholic mission society. It was established in 1911 with most men being skilled tradesmen. The group was led by bishops from the United States, and its development fell into two diocesan priests namely Father Thomas Fredrick and James Anthony of Boston. Just like Jesus, the two individuals had the commission, to encourage U.S missioners to set their lives apart for helping the community. Studies outline that, one year after its founding, three men joined who were fully dedicated to the mission work (Gollock, 2010). During this time, the number of brothers increased in that, by 1921, the community comprised of twenty priests, dozen brothers, and almost sixty five seminaries students. Men played a vital r ole at Maryknoll to the extent that they formed a movement of the â€Å"Fields A far Staff â€Å". In 1920, the church recognized Maryknoll sisters who led the community into service as they recognize the needs in the community. In essence, the Maryknoll missionaries have served all over the world, as they become influential in regards to missionary activities. As of 2009, there were over 560 Maryknoll brothers and priests serving all over the world, mainly in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. In the 20th Century, they played a vital role in the Catholic Church of East Asia, and also extended into Latin American countries. Their aspect of mission For years, the Maryknoll Missioners have imposed love and compassion for people, as they work diligently to protect the weak and poor. For instance, they have had extensive connections with Latin American countries whereby, they have worked hard to eradicate poverty and improve lives of many Latin American. Poverty is a core issue affectin g Latin Americans in the sense that, some live below the poverty line. With this in mind, Maryknoll Missioners have worked to help the needy in such communities as they renewed call to their membership in campaigning for justice for the poor. These efforts have been supported by donations from U.S as many unite to help the needy in the community. With no doubt; this has helped to alleviate poverty as they bring constructive changes to the Latin Americans. Typically,

An Effective Interpersonal Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

An Effective Interpersonal Communication - Essay Example Another thing which is important in the mean of communication is that the person who is communicating does note carefully if the listener or the person who is being referred to understand the theme of the message. This can be achieved by a two-way process. By two way process here it is meant that the communicator should ask for replies from the person who is being referred to with the message. This would help to assure the communicator that his message is being interpreted properly by the listener. Similarly, if this is not done the message would be misinterpreted and other problems may arise because of this miscommunication (Michael 1988 & Kelly 1979). In a personal relationship, it should be noted that some expressions like nodding, smiling and movement of eyes etc. help as a tool for answering and creating the two-way process of communication. Similarly verbal messages like OK, I understand, true, indeed etc. also support the two-way process of communication. Positivism is one imp ortant aspect of the communication process. By positivism here it is meant that both the negative and positive aspects of the message should be kept in balance so that the person to whom the message is being referred to does not get a wrong concept. If this happens and the negative aspect is given more weigh the person who is being referred to may take it wrong and get discouraged by the other person’s response or assertions (Michael 1988 & Kelly 1979). Communication process has several barriers when dealing with the spouses.... Thus it is necessary that the communicator does not drag his message up to critical levels where the other listener gets confused by the message. This confusion can therefore lead to several other problems in the relationships (Kelly 1979 & Taylor 2001). Dear Sara and Tim, my advice to you for a successful relationship is to maintain a level of understanding and frankness which allows you to speak out ‘clearly’ your innermost feelings and communicate your expectation without hesitation. The expectations from the other partner to understand the unspoken or ambiguously communicated wishes may end up weakening the relationship. The communicator should make it a point that he is direct when communicating. The communicator should not involve irrelevant messages while he communicates as these irrelevant messages can lead to errors in understanding the basic idea or expectation of the other partner.. The misconception about reaching the point in communication is that the commun icator usually thinks that adding up other points may give him an advantage but this rather creates an absurd image in which one can miss out the main points of the original message. So it can be concluded that in communication it is necessary that the main point is laid out firstly so that it is not missed out later on (Michael 1988 & Kelly 1979). It is also necessary for the communicator to make up his speech in such a way that it does not sound cold or harsh. This is because the message would put down the listeners or the person to whom the message is referred to. And this would create other errors at the workplace as well as in the personal relationships. Thus it is necessary for

International financial accounting and theory Term Paper

International financial accounting and theory - Term Paper Example Accounting theories are primarily developed to enhance economic decision making prior to financial record keeping and reporting. In the modern times however, industrial activities have had both positive and negative impacts especially on the society and the environment. The government and the society have consistently aired their concern and pressure on companies to address the adverse impacts of business undertakings on both environment and society. In this regard, social and environmental accounting theories have been integrated into the accounting practices to account for these concerns. The strengths, weaknesses and limitations of these theories and their position in the current accounting frameworks are evaluated in this paper. Social theory in accounting practices is concerned with the social responsibility of entities in regard to their recording keeping and financial reporting. Although it is not necessary for companies and business entities to prepare income statements and balance sheets that pertain to social responsibilities, it is important for such entities to evaluate their social achievements and success by evaluating their social performance aspects. Social accounting is used to measure this performance and report the social responsibility of a firm given the social activities it undertakes (Business and Economic Review, 2006, p.21).

Create a Brief Literature Review Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Create a Brief Literature Review - Coursework Example Past analyses have looked into the relationship between generations and motivation at work. Most of these determine the intrinsic and extrinsic motivators of Baby Boomers and Millennial. These studies do not investigate the relative effects these intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors have on the generations (Leavitt, 2014). There exits many theories about motivation and one particular of these theories is intrinsic and extrinsic motivations theory developed in 1985 (Jansen, 2010). This model suggest that an individual behavior can be intrinsically motivated or extrinsically motivated. Persons engaging in pleasurable tasks are believed to be intrinsically motivated while extrinsic motivation is a description of activities that are a means to an end and not the pleasure of task (Leavitt, 2014). Individuals motivated by intrinsic process find motivation in the work itself. These individuals find the behavior challenging, and there are no external controls regulating the behavior. Goal incorporation is the source of motivation for a behavior in the person who adopts behaviors and attitudes based on congruity with their personal value system. Persons motivated by instrumental or extrinsic rewards believe their behaviors will lead to certain results. Research describes millennial as more individualistic than any other generation, but till this day, prove on generational differences relating to work values remain scant despite the effort by consultants selling solutions of managing younger workers (Leavitt, 2014). Contrary to popular beliefs, millennial value less altruistic and social rewards than Baby Boomers. Intrinsic rewards such as growth opportunity and interesting work are more important to millennial, but less compared to any of the previous generations like the Baby Boomers (Leavitt, 2014). To Millennial, leisure is relatively important and values extrinsic rewards like status and pay

CCHBC Supply and Demand Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

CCHBC Supply and Demand Management - Assignment Example The paper tells that the ability to meet the demands of both the external and internal environment within a multinational corporation requires planning and implementation through various means. The structure which is followed through Coca Cola’s HBC is one which provides alternative methods to ensure that various needs are met for the product. This is based on the operations strategic management and the ability to control the supply and demand with planning and control. The way in which CCHBC is able to work with suppliers and monitor principles within the corporation furthers the advantages of the corporation and the strategies which are developed. Examining the relevant approaches which are associated with CCHBC and how these are assisting with the development of the corporation then is able to provide an alternative approach to the development of corporations at a global level and with a strategic infrastructure. The first concept which is approached within CCHBC is the ope rations strategic management and the ability to achieve strategic aims. The approach which CCHBC is using is based on the four main principles of meeting the supplies and demands, including availability, affordability, acceptability and activation. These are operation management practices which are practically applied at various levels to ensure that the quality is maintained within each procedure. The availability is one which centers on the supply chain management and accuracy of each of the orders. This is followed by the affordability, specifically which associates with the quality control and planning while assisting with competitive prices dependent on the location of suppliers and region of the country. The acceptability furthers with quality control and planning and is based on matching with specific standards for the CCHBC to continue with high – quality products. The activation which is associated with this includes having the right price, location and brand while d eveloping the management processes and cohesion. This occurs through multi – departmental agreements. The approach which is used for quality control and planning as well as supply chain management is one which builds strength and reliability

“White Teeth” by Zadie Smith Essay Example for Free

â€Å"White Teeth† by Zadie Smith Essay In the novel â€Å"White Teeth† Zadie Smith depicts modern society, its values and traditions, hopes and everyday life. This novel is full of different symbols which help to unveil the message of the story and force readers to interpret events and behavior of the characters in a peculiar way. Archie Jones, the protagonist of the novel, a war veteran who tries to overcome depression and psychological pressure caused by war. Thesis Archie likes to flip a coin in moments of indecision which symbolizes his liberation and freedom from social norms and the second chance Life gives to him. A coin symbolizes destiny and fate for Archie. The main change concerns his understanding of the chance and destiny as an invisible hand which rules his life. For Smith, a person has to obey to general rules and law based on traditions and morals. The irony of indecision depicts the gap between expected, traditional, usual things and reality people try to escape. Smith underlines that a coin has double meaning which can symbolize great expectations and hopes, but it can be interpreted as fate and death Archie wants to face. Smith changes this tradition depicting that a coin gives everyone a chance to try his destiny for the worse. â€Å"Solemnly he flipped a coin (heads, life, tails, death) and felt nothing in particular when he found himself staring at the dancing lion† (Smith, 2000, p. 10). Smith leaves it to readers to decide the significance and impact of these manipulations on Archie’s life.   To some extent, symbol of a coin underlines unimportance of life and Archie’s indifference towards death. â€Å"He had flipped a coin and stood staunchly by its conclusions. This was a decided-upon suicide. In fact it was a New Years resolution† (Smith, 2000, p.3). It seems that subconsciously Archie is looking for a death which he has escaped during the war. Smith depicts that this is the most difficult time for all soldiers to come to grips with changes occurred in their society. â€Å"In death as he was in life and all that† (Smith, 2000, p.4). The flip of a coin symbolizes total ignorance of the world and emptiness of the protagonist’s life. Probably, a coin itself is the same thing where a chance determines the destiny of every person. In practice, it is possible and desirable to create new law and values, because new environment forces people to change their personal priorities and morals. It is possible to say that the flip of a coin becomes a kind of religion preached by Archie which influenced life of all people around him. On the other hand, Smith underlines unimportance of the coin which confronted with eternal values and virtues: â€Å"Nor did it lie in gender, faith, their relative ability to dance to a syncopated rhythm or open their fists to reveal a handful of gold coins. The real difference was far more fundamental. It was in the earth. It was in the sky† (Smith, 2000, p. 305). Also, the flip of a coin creates a certain mystery forcing readers to think over the situation and all decisions accepted by Archie. Smith depicts that Life can give â€Å"a chance† to a person to start a new life and overcome tension and depression. Archie meets his second wife the same day when wants to commit a suicide. This situation depicts that â€Å"a chance† determines the life of Archie brining happiness to his wife Clare and future to their family. Smith writes: â€Å"Life wanted Archie. She had jealously grabbed him from the jaws of death, back to her bosom. Although he was not one of her better specimens, Life wanted Archie and Archie, much to his own surprise, wanted Life† (Smith, 2000, p. 6-7). Through the flip a coin the life gives Archie a second chance and â€Å"peculiar† marriage. To some extent, the flip of a coin has afforded readers the opportunity to explore the sense of his unique character and soul at its most profound center. Involved in that is a certain amount of risk and challenge, of tension and attention, a certain pres ­ence that suggests how human beings might become as a people. Heads or tails mean necessity which is used by Archie as an explanation for capacity to seek and achieve the approbation of fellow human beings, and hence to form moral norms and rules of justice as internal and external guides to conduct. It is important to note that indecision does not mean weakness or cowardice of the personality. The flip of a coin unveils true nature of Archie and his world views. War terror and tension have dominated in the society for so long that people are afraid to change something even if their habits are useless. Archie can do nothing but commit himself to laws he finds repulsive if the order of society demands it. Alsana characterizes the human experience as: you go back and back and back and its still easier to find the correct Hoover bag than to find one pure person, one pure faith, on the globe (Smith, 2000, p. 196). This phrase vividly portrays Archie’s thoughts and hopes: the flip of a coin helps him to find his faith and truth of life in a unique and peculiar way which seems strange to all people around him. Smith portrays that a chance plays more powerful role than will or desire directing Archie and people around him. It is possible to say that Life sets certain limits on desires and whishes of Archie, and his role in lives of other characters: Clare and his daughter Irie,   Samad Iqbal and his family. Through the character of Archie and the flip of a coin, Smith goes beyond traditional structure interpretation of life and destiny based her work on imagery and superstition of the protagonist. The flip of a coin unveils that what humans needed is order, and that to achieve it they must rely on their destiny and chance. Archie has to condition to reality using his own way and relying on fate and choice. He can blame nothing but his Life. The whole span of Archie’s development, from the explosive emotions of his youth to the skeptical mysticism of his middle age, is encompassed by the desire to play a game with his life and death. Archie fits very closely in with these ideas; he is a man trapped by a conventional notion of what is right and ‘wrong’. The flip of a coin is liberation from outside world limited by traditions and stipulated norms, low morals and false values. References Smith, Z. White Teeth. Random House. 2000.

Relationship Between Motivational Beliefs and Education

Relationship Between Motivational Beliefs and Education Background to Research Adequately meeting the varying needs of an increasingly diverse population of students is a major challenge for education. To face this challenge educational researchers have explored a variety of areas within the students educational experience to examine the effects on students. Many studies of the experiences, characteristics and needs of students at various grade levels and age groups have been conducted. There is a general consensus that the needs, interests, preferences and characteristics of the students change with the social, economic, and technological changes around them. Provision of the best environment and conditions that support better learning and development of students is on the educational reform agenda worldwide (UNESCO, 1998). Research has emphasized the need and importance of students views and opinions about their learning experiences, while planning and providing supportive conditions and facilities for learning (Leckey Neill, 2001, Nicholls, 2002). The Islamic Republic of Pakistan came into being in 1947. It has an estimated population of 164.8 Million (Population Census organization, 2008) with an overall literacy rate of 51.6 % (Government of Pakistan, 2005). Education in Pakistan is divided into five levels, Primary (grades one through five), Middle (grades six through eight), High (grades nine and ten, leading to Secondary School certificate), Intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a higher Secondary School Certificate), and Higher Education (education above grades 12) leading to a bachelor degree (BA/BSC) after two years of study mostly at affiliated colleges. A Masters Degree or Postgraduate degree is mostly undertaken at universities and requires another two years of study. At the time of independence in 1947 there were only two universities, the University of the Punjab, Lahore and the University of Dhaka. At present there are 67 universities in the public sector and 57 in the private (Higher Education Commission, 2005). Currently there are approximately 32, 8603 students enrolled in postgraduate programmes (MA/MSc) with more females (53%) than males currently enrolled (Government of Pakis tan, 2003). Since independence the quality of education at all levels has been a concern in Pakistan. Most of the efforts directed at quality enhancement have been targeted towards primary and secondary education, but during late 1990s higher education became the major concern of the government and this has been expressed in its policies and plans (Government of Pakistan, 1998, 2004, 2005). Responding to unprecedented expansion in higher education, formalized and systematic quality assurance mechanisms began to evolve in the early 2000s, with the establishment of Higher Education Commission (HEC). Most of the efforts at reform designed to improve the quality of higher education have been directed toward physical inputs, teacher training, and material resources (Government of Pakistan, 2004, 2005). There has also been increasing recognition that conventional approaches to curriculum, pedagogy and organization in higher education do not always lead to excellence and quality (Government of Pakistan , 2001). However what is missing in these discussion concerning strategies for enhancing quality of higher education in Pakistan is students opinions about their learning and their learning experiences. Being a part of the higher education community in Pakistan, issues of higher education quality have been of increasing concern and interest to me. My experience of teaching at the University of the Punjab (Lahore), Pakistan, during the last ten years have led to the development of an interest in the study of motivational beliefs and learning experiences of the postgraduate students. The University of the Punjab is one of the oldest and largest universities of Pakistan. Established in the 1882, the University is comprised of 4 Campuses, 13 Faculties, 9 constituent colleges, and 64 Departments and Centers. Currently students feedback about their learning is obtained at the level of individual units or courses but there is no systematic procedure for evaluating students overall experience of learning at the level of whole course or degree. In Pakistan postgraduate students join the university after completing 10 years of study at school and 4 years of study at college. Postgraduate stud ents who attend university in Pakistan are thus engaged in higher education for a minimum of four years. Their long academic experience means they are in a position to judge the nature and quality of their experiences of learning at university but they are never given a chance to do so except at the unit level and they are not asked about their goals, aspirations and motivations. Research in western higher education systems shows that the students are best placed to comment about many aspects of quality of education and their ratings are considered to be valid, multidimensional and reliable (Marsh, 1987; Ramsden 1991; Leckey Niell, 2001). Many studies have also been conducted on students motivational beliefs and learning in higher education and well developed instruments such as Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) and Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) have been employed to explore the motivational beliefs of the students and to study the impact of various other factors on the students experiences of teaching, curriculum and assessment and learning in western higher education. A systematic use of the findings of these studies has provided a strong basis for the improvement of the quality of student learning in higher education (Watson, 2003; Harvey, 2003). Much of the research on student learning and higher education has been conducted in developed countries like the USA, UK and Australia (Watson, 2003; Harvery, 2003, Pascarella Terenzini, 1998; Wilson .Lozzio Ramsden, 1997; Diseth, 2003; Diseth Pallesen, Hoveland Larsen, 2006) with very few studies be conducted in the Asian contexts (see Salili, 1996). No studies of this nature have been conducted in the Pakistani context. However the researchers in the field of motivation and learning have increasingly highlighted the importance of conducting research in different cultural and social contexts (Byrne Flood, 2008; Schunk, Pintrich Meece, 2008; Kaplan Maehr, 2006).According to Pintrich and Zusho (2007) cultural and social context can have mojor effect on the motivational beliefs as well as on the outcomes of education and research is needed to explore whether various models of learning and motivation can be generalized and do the various motivational constructs operate similarly among various cultures. Therefore findings and implications of the research on hig her education in western contexts, need to be explored further in the social, economic and cultural context of Pakistan. Such research is needed to get an insight into motivational profile and learning experiences of the student at the postgraduate level in Pakistan, where the percentage of female students at postgraduate level (53 %) is higher than male students. These figures for females sit in stark contrast to the lower literacy rate for females (39.2%) across the country (Government of Pakistan, 2005) and where future job prospects for qualified people are very low (Husain, 2005).The overall unemployment rate in Pakistan is 7.8 % (Government of Pakistan, 2008) whereas no statistics are available for different groups such as people with bachelors degrees, masters degrees and professional degrees. There is hardly any research conducted in Pakistan that could provide an insight into students motivational beliefs and their experiences of learning at the postgraduate level. A literature search identified just two recent studies about students approaches to learning in higher education in Pakistan. Siddiqui (2006) investigated study approaches of Pakistani students in tertiary institutions by using a revised version of the Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F). The sample comprised 13,331 students who appeared at 15 centers for National Postgraduate Scholarship Examination in December 2003. The results showed that the students predominantly had higher scores on deep approach. No statistically significant differences were observed on the basis of gender, age and highest qualification, but there were significant differences for various fields of study. Akhtar (2007) conducted a comparative study of approaches to study used by students in pre-service teacher education programs at th e University of the Punjab (Lahore), Pakistan and the University of Edinburgh, UK. The study showed that the students from both universities perceived their learning environment in a similar way, but that a surface approach to learning was found to be more dominant among the Pakistani students. Due to lack of research on higher education students in Pakistan, my proposed study of the motivational beliefs and the experiences of learning in various disciplines of study at the University of the Punjab is expected to be the first in Pakistan to investigate the relationship between the motivational beliefs and learning at postgraduate level in Pakistan. This study will provide an understanding of the factors affecting the learning processes at the University of the Punjab and may serve as a basis for the improvement of academic programs and students learning experiences in Pakistani universities more generally. In a range of Western countries, many research studies have established the impact of motivational beliefs on self regulation and educational achievement (Pintrich DeGroot, 1990; Eccles, Wigfield Schiefele, 1998); Pintrich Zusho, 2007) but no research has explored the relationship between motivational beliefs and experiences of learning at postgraduate level. This is a n important issue in Pakistan where postgraduates do not necessarily expect to find suitable work after completion of their qualification. The results of the study will also help to understand and suggest to the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan, some practical and feasible initiatives to highlight the importance of students views in the current efforts of the Government to enhance the quality of university education. Literature Review The following section discusses and examines the concept of students learning experiences in higher education sector. After a brief review of recent changes in the higher education and how the exploration of student experiences have been used to improve the quality of education, this review discuses various perspectives on learning to provide an account of how experience of learning has been conceptualized so far and what is needed to be explored further to develop our understanding of student learning in higher education. The Changing Face of Higher Education Worldwide there has been shift in the nature, structure, function and the financing of the university system (Biggs, 2003). In universities in developed countries these changes are quite evident through the expansion of technology, more diverse student population, increased demand for accountability and emphasis on research and performance related funding. Studies in Australia and other countries of the world serve to highlight some of the significant changes in the nature of student population over the last decade. For instance, in the UK 21% of full-time students at the start of their degree in 2005 were over the age of 21 (Robotham, 2008). Similarly, Studies by McInnis, James Hartley (2000) in Australia reveal other important changes when they note an increase in the proportion of full-time students who are working part-time and students seeking more choice in the subjects, delivery modes, assessment activities and facilities provided by the universities. Due to this growing diversity of the student population and rapidly changing social, technological and economic contexts, mass systems of the higher education in USA and Australia are now faced with the challenge of complexity of the student learning (James 2001, Pascarella and Terenzizni, 1998). According to Biggs (2003) a greater proportion of school leavers with diverse experiences, socio- economic status and cultural backgrounds are now joining higher education, they have to pay more tuition fees, study in large class sizes with fewer teachers and have to choose from more vocationally oriented courses. While discussing the challenge of the growing diversity of the student population and the influences of a number of demographic, institutional, economic and technological forces in the context of the USA, Pascarella and Terenzizni (1998) argue that these changes have significant implications for understanding the impact of college on students and require us to rethink about students experiences of learning. They further argue that these challenges require us to rethink students experiences of learning and redefine the outcomes of college and university education. In developed and developing countries like Pakistan more students are now aspiring to join institutions of higher education and there is a significant increase in the number of universities accommodating this new student population. Over the course of the later part of the twentieth century there was a world wide expansion of higher education institutions and enrollments. In 1900 roughly 500,000 students were enrolled in higher education institutions world wide, representing only one percent of college age population, whereas by the year 2000, this number had grown two hundredfold to approximately 100 million people, or 20 percent of the cohort worldwide (Schofer Meyer, 2005). At the time of the creation of Pakistan in 1947, there were only two universities, but after 1999-2000 there was a sharp increase in the number of public and private universities as the government showed the clear commitment to improving the higher education (Government of Pakistan 2004)., There was a significant increase in the spending on tertiary education (15.7% of the total Ed. Expenditure). At present there are 67 universities in public sector in Pakistan and 57 in the private. Despite the fact that only 3.7 percent of the 18 to 23 age cohort participates in higher education, the student enrollment at the University of the Punjab alone has increased from 10,000 to 30,000 over the last eight years (Iqbal, 2008). There are no empirical studies and little literature available on the demographic and economic characteristics, expectations, and experiences of students in Pakistani higher education institutions. To sum up, it can be said that as a consequence of the changes in the nature and context of higher education, the relationship between universities and students has also changed (James, 2001). Further, learning at university has become far more complex than it has been before. With the changing face of higher education, the factors that can have an impact on student learning in higher education have also become manifold, including personal factors (e.g. age, gender, prior experience and motivation of students) and contextual factors (e.g. teaching and learning activities, courses and content of study, facilities, resources and social environment. In other words, the impacts of wider changes in the context of higher education appear to be filtering down to the level of the individual student. Student Views and Quality of Higher Education Changes in the nature and provision of higher education have meant that the collection of feedback from students and the importance of students views and experiences of learning is on the agenda world wide. Students evaluations of courses and teaching are considered to be an important measure and indicator of educational quality (Marsh, 1987; Leckey Neill, 2001, Harvey, 2003). Universities in the UK, USA and Australia regularly collect student feedback to improve the quality of higher education. According to Leckey and Neill (2001) many papers have been written about students evaluation of teaching quality and many authors (such as Marsh, 1987, Kuh, 1999, Vesper Kuh, 1997) have published the review of these thereby supporting the continuing use of student evaluations. The importance of student feedback to universities can be seen in the growth of student involvement in university decision-making. For example in Sweden the Swedish government passed a bill in 2000 to give representat ion to students in university decision-making bodies (Swedish Government, 1999) In the UK a variety of mechanisms is being used both at the local level (faculty, school, course, and module) and institutional level (for example, graduate surveys) to get students feedback (Leckey Neill, 2001). At the national level, student surveys were introduced in 2005, to collect feedback from students on the quality of courses in order to contribute to public accountability, as well as to help inform the choices of future applicants coming to higher education (Harvey, 2003). In the USA there are three major types of surveys used to gather data on students experiences of learning, namely the College Student Experience Questionnaire (used since 1983 by about 500 colleges and universities), the College Students Expectation Questionnaire (used since 1996, with over 61,000 students at more than 60 institutions) and the National Survey of Student Engagement (began in 1998). The National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) obtains, on an annual basis, information about student participation in programs and activities that institutions provide for their learning and personal development. The results provide an estimate of how undergraduates spend their time and what they gain from attending college (NSSE, 2003). Similarly, in Australia, since 1993 all graduates in universities have been invited annually to complete the Course Experience Questionnaire. As a result of various investigations and analyses of these surveys since then, many important aspects (e.g quality of teaching, availability of recourses and social climate of the institutions) of learning in higher education have been discovered. Differences in students evaluations have been noted within different subject areas and disciplines (Ramsden, 2003). The Graduate career Council of Australia (GCCA) considers students perceptions of curriculum, instruction and assessment as key determinants of their approach to learning and the quality of the outcomes of that learning. The CEQ is considered a valuable instrument for the purpose of improving the quality of teaching in universities and also for informing student choice, managing institutional performance and promoting accountability of the higher education sector (McInnis, Griffin, Jame s Coates, 2001). A synthesis of the literature from the above section shows that students self reported surveys and questionnaires are the most commonly used method for getting feedback from students and evaluating their experiences of learning. Self report questionnaires are considered to be very useful for assessing those outcomes of higher education that can not be measured by achievement tests (Kuh Vesper, 1997, Watson, 2003). Further Pike (1995) has argued that self reports of experiences were found to be highly correlated with relevant achievement test scores. The literature shows that student evaluation of teaching quality in higher education is a well-recognised practice in the developed countries. There has been growing support for the use of student satisfaction surveys as an indicator of teaching quality (Alridge Rowley, 1998). Furthermore, Murray (1997) reports that the use of these surveys has led to measurable improvements in teaching quality. As such, student feedback can be used as an effective tool for quality enhancement. Harvey (1995) also emphasised that student satisfaction goes hand in hand with the development of a culture of continuous quality improvement. In contrast to developed countries the concept of inclusion of the students in the mechanisms of quality improvement is comparatively new to the developing countries like Pakistan. Currently students evaluations of the individual teachers at the University of the Punjab, Pakistan are generally used as a means of providing feedback to the teachers rather than as means o f improving the quality of student learning. According to Byrne and Flood (2004) the evaluation of teaching at the course level (i.e. full course of study such as degree program) rather than at individual unit/module level is more positively accepted by staff and is considered to be more appropriate for maintaining and enhancing quality at institution level .My study of students experiences of learning may provide basis for the development of a systematic way of obtaining student feedback at the level of whole course/degree, on regular basis and to use it as a means for the improvement of quality of student learning at University of the Punjab. The Contemporary Perspectives on Learning Experiences The experience of joining an institution of higher education is a significant event or turning point for an individual (Wintage, 2007), in that it provides for a transition to another stage of education and life experiences. Research indicates that the early experiences of students in higher education systems are vital in establishing attitudes and outlooks that are carried forward throughout the course and that these views and beliefs are critical to success (Wintage, 2007). However, these effects sometimes do not show themselves until the second year of a program of study or even later (Wright, 1982). Most of the research on learning in higher education has been focused on the undergraduate students, while postgraduate students have been a comparatively neglected group (Lindsay, Breen Jenkins, 2002). Although a substantial number of studies (see Schevens, 2003; Meyer Kiley; 1998; Rowley Slack, 1998; Haggis, 2002) have been conducted with postgraduate research students and intern ational postgraduate students exploring the issues of cultural and academic adjustment in international universities, it is hard to find studies specifically conducted to explore the experiences of postgraduate students enrolled in taught degrees which is the case in Pakistan. However the research on various aspects of higher education has lead to a better understanding of student experiences of learning (i.e students needs, problems, preferences and choices) in higher education. Learning in higher education is considered to be complex and multidimensional in nature and it has been viewed from various perspectives as discussed in the following section. Approaches to Learning Perspective The origins of approaches to learning perspective can be traced back to a series of studies conducted by Marton and Sà ¤ljà ¶ in the late 1970s (Cuthbert, 2005). Using phenomenography, these researchers looked at the qualitative aspects of the university students learning. The group of researchers under this perspective focused on the outcomes of learning and described different categories of learning outcomes in terms of the intentions of the students in starting a learning task and the process used to carry out those tasks. Originally two approaches i.e. deep and surface were formulated by Marton and Saljo (1976) and subsequent research by Entwistle and Ramsden (1983) added to this pair the strategic approach. This perspective has provided an explanation of various outcomes exhibited by students. For example, a surface approach to learning was associated with a focus on rote learning, memorisation and reproduction, a lack of reflection, a preoccupation with completing the task an d extrinsic value, whereas a deep approach was associated with holistic style with an intention to understand, the use of a wide variety of information and intrinsic value (Entwistle Tait, 1990). Approaches to learning comprise both what students do (when learning) and why they do it. After the qualitative and experimental work carried out by Marton and Saljo in 1976, Entwisle and Ramsden (1983) and Biggs (1987) were considered to be among the first to develop quantitative tools such as Course Perceptions Questionnaire (CPQ), Approaches to Study Inventory (ASI) and the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) for looking at a broader sample of university students approaches to learning. According to Entwistle (1997) the approaches to learning perspective drew attention to the outcomes of learning, which are congruent with the aims of teaching and made us think about the quality of learning in higher education. This perspective is also considered to have provided a great deal of knowledge about leaning in higher education (Case, 2008). Whereas Cuthbert (2005) says that the approaches to learning perspective provided knowledge about differences in the quality of engagement of the learner such as, learning for understanding, learning for reproduction or learning for achievement and that the learners approach to the learning task is dependent upon his/her conscious choices for learning. He further says that intentions for different tasks depend upon the nature of the task and the context; therefore it is possible to manipulate students intentions and achievement by manipulating the task and the context of learning. There have also been several criticisms of the approaches to learning perspective. One argument is that this perspective pays too much attention to the learning context and too little attention to the importance of student context such as cognitive issues, gender and past experience (Cuthbert, 2005). Therefore it is considered to have greater impact on teachers to improve their practice (Prosser Trigwell, 1997). Similarly the recent longitudinal study conducted by Case and Gunstone, (2006) pointed out the limitations of the approaches to learning perspective in ignoring the influence of students emotional condition, awareness, control, motivation, and end goals. Similarly, I am concerned about the limitations of our understanding that result from these studies that rather narrowly conceive of the students learning experiences. My study is designed to explore how students perceive their learning experiences taking into account personal factors such as gender, motivational beliefs, personal goals and career aspirations. Alienation and Engagement Perspective In response to the criticism of the limited scope of the approaches to learning perspective, Mann (2001) proposed the concepts of alienation and engagement and argued that these provide a broader and more contextualized picture of the learning experience. The concept of alienation has been very narrowly defined in the literature. Several authors (Mann, 2001; Case, 2008) have referred the concept of alienation as the state or experience of being isolated from a group or an activity to which one should belong or in which one should be involved (Oxford English Dictionary). In explaining the concept of alienation Mann (2001) has pointed out that several factors, such as current socio-cultural conditions, pre-existing experiences, cost to individual, loss of creativity, distribution of power, and assessment practices lead to student alienation while learning in higher education. He argued that we should reframe our view of students experiences of learning, from a focus on surface/strategi c/deep approaches to learning to a focus on alienated or engaged experiences of learning in higher education. In contrast to alienation, engagement is concerned with point of intersection between individuals and things that are critical for learning (Coates, 2006). While discussing the concept of engagement Fredricks, Blumenfeld Paris (2004) refer to three types of engagement: behavioral engagement, emotional engagement and cognitive engagement with each type being associated with positive academic outcomes and persistence in education. Several factors such as classroom structure, relationship with peers and teachers, nature of task, assessment type, autonomy and support in learning, previous grades, family background and available facilities are considered to have an impact on the nature and quality of engagement in learning (Fredricks et al, 2004; Case, 2008). The concept of student engagement is considered to be a useful means for assessing and responding to the significant dynamics, challenges and opportunities facing higher education institutions (AUSSE, 2008). This concept has recently gained considerable significance in the discussions about quality in education (Fredricks et al, 2004; AUSSE, 2008) and important reflections of this are to be found in the USA National Survey of student Engagement (NSSE) (NSSE, 2003) which started in 1999 and Australian Survey of Student Engagement (AUSSE, 2008) conducted for the first time in 2007. Although AUSSE and NSSE provide an insight in to the student learning in higher education by evaluating the experiences of academic challenge, active learning, relationships with staff, learning support and work integrated learning, they do not take account of motivational beliefs of the students, and how these impact on the students experience of learning in higher education. Though the concepts of alienation and engagement as discussed above and provide a useful picture of aspects of student learning in higher education, the critical dimension of how the students experience is formed and the students motivational profiles are not taken into account. Despite a great deal of knowledge and research about engagement there are several gaps in the literature and the definitions of the construct, measures and designs do not capitalize on what the concept of engagement can offer about learning (Fredricks et al, 2004). Therefore students experiences of learning and motivational beliefs need further exploration. The role of motivation in learning has been well established through extensive research at almost all educational levels (Schunk, 1982; Pintrich De Groot, 1990; Eccles, Wigfield, Harold Bluemenfeld, 1993). Motivation is the process by which goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained (Schunk,et al, 2008). Motivation can influence what, when and how we learn (Schunk et al, 2008) and it bears a reciprocal relationship to learning and performance (Pintrich, 2003; Shunck, 1995). Though the perspectives discussed above take into consideration the various aspects of learning higher education, the impact of motivational factors on the experiences of learning in higher education needs further exploration and research. Experiences of Learning from the Perspective of Motivational Beliefs In higher education, the experiences of learning can only be partially understood if the motivational beliefs of the students are not taken into account. There is thus a need to explore students experiences of learning in the context of motivation for learning. There have been several interpretations of the motivational beliefs of students, however in the literature on student motivation three motivational constructs of expectancy, value and effect are most widely referred to (Bandura, 1997; Pintrich and De Groot, 1990; Pintrich and Schunk, 2002; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000). These constructs have their roots in the social cognitive theory and work on the postulate that motivational processes influence both learning and performance (Schunk, 1995). Several achievement motivation theorists have attempted to explain peoples choice of achievement tasks, persistence on those tasks, vigor in carrying them out and performance on them (Eccles et al, 1998; Pintrich Schunk, 1996). One longstanding perspective on motivation is expectancy-value theory. In general expectancy-value theorists consider behavior choice, persistence and performance to be a function of the degree to which individuals judge their capabilities to perform designated courses of action (expectancy) and how they value these activities. According to expectancy-value theory three motivational components are very signifi

Impact of ELL Inclusion on Teaching

Impact of ELL Inclusion on Teaching CHAPTER ONE Introduction Over the course of time, major laws, policy documents and landmark decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court as well as other federal and state courts regarding bilingual education have shaped educational policy in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, a response to Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), established the constitutional basis for the educational rights of language minority students. Within a decade, Title VI Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in federally funded programs. Subsequently cited in many court cases, it basically stated that a student has a right to meaningful and effective instruction. In 1974 the US Supreme Court reaffirmed the 1970 Memorandum regarding denial of access and participation in an educational program due to inability to speak or understand English. This action was the result of the Lau vs. Nichols class action suit brought by Chinese speaking students in San Francisco against the school district in 1974. There is no equality of treatment by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers and curriculum, for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education. The memorandum further affirmed that Basic English skills are at the very core of what public schools teach. Imposition of a requirement that, before a child can effectively participate in the educational program, he must already have acquired those basic skills is to make a mockery of public education (Lau vs. Nichols, 1974). In accordance with what are known as the Lau Remedies, in 1975 the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) established some basic guidelines for schools with Limited English Proficient (LEP) students. Although there has been much change in terms of public policy, the ultimate challenge of implementation rests upon the teacher. Throughout the United States public school teachers are challenged to meet the needs of an ever-increasing number of English-language learner (ELL) population. By the turn of this last century, the population of students identified as limited English proficient (LEP) has grown exponentially. From 1995 to 2001 alone, the LEP population grew approximately 105% nationwide (Kindler, 2002). According to recent estimates there are 4.5 million LEP students are currently enrolled in K-12 public schools in the United States. U.S. Census Bureau estimates indicate a continued trend of linguistic diversification in the years ahead (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Due to a linguistic shift the student population is experiencing, the educational community has had to fix its focus upon multilingual classrooms, and research set in multilingual classrooms has risen in importance. While there are specialists who work with limited or non-English speaking students initially, the students integration into a m ultilingual i.e. mainstream classroom is essential. Hence, teacher attitudes are an important consideration in terms of relevant professional preparation. Statement of the Research Problem Despite the amount of research being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a lack of information in the educational community regarding teacher attitudes toward including English-language learners in mainstream classrooms. There exists a void in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion. As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes. As members of the communities they live in, teachers cannot help but be influenced by dominant societal attitudes. When teachers internalize dominant societal messages, they bring them directly into their schools and classrooms. School administrators, other school staff and parents all internalize societal messages, creating a school ethos that mirrors that of the community and the dominant order of society at large (Walker, Schafer and Liams, 2004). Of particular interest to this researcher are the experiences of secondary teachers, especially within the Long Island region. Because this area, which despite its cultural diversity has received so little attention from the research community, the design of this study will be driven by the need to help remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional perspective. Purpose of the Research The general purpose of this study therefore has been to broaden the existing body of knowledge by identifying teacher perceptions of the impact of ELL inclusion upon their teaching, measure teachers perceived impact of inclusion on the teaching environment, and assess teacher attitudes concerning ELLs. This study also provides data which highlights areas which require attention or resolution. Research Questions Upon review of two studies, one by Reeves (2004), and another by Walker, Schafer and Liams (2004) of secondary teachers experiences with ELL inclusion, questions were developed to examine secondary teachers attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion in mainstream classes. Upon review of these studies four significant themes surfaced. The Reeves study, albeit larger in scale, provided a sound basis for this treatment. Those salient themes became the following research questions which have guided this study: 1. Inclusion in mainstream classes: What are teacher attitudes toward ELL inclusion in mainstream classes? 2. Modification of coursework for ELLs: What are teacher attitudes toward the modification of coursework for ELLs? 3. ESL professional development: What are teacher attitudes toward ESL professional development? 4. Teacher perceptions of second-language acquisition processes: What are teacher perceptions of second-language acquisition processes? (Reeves, 2004) Definition of Terms There are several terms that need to be defined for clarity of understanding. These are: Bi-lingual: The ability to speak two languages easily and naturally ESL: English as a second language ELL: English language learner, TESOL: Teaching English for speakers of other languages Mainstream: Mainstream in the context of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the majority of students. Participants and Setting All subject-area teachers were from 3 district high schools within a 25 mile radius of this researcher have participated in the survey by mail. The faculties chosen for participation in the study were from the three high schools with the largest population of ESL students during the 2008-2009 school years. This was determined by use of public domain resources (www.city-data.com). High schools with the largest ESL student populations were identified to enable access to the largest number of teachers who had working with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were surveyed remotely via mail during the month of July 2009. CHAPTER TWO As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes. Although there exists a void exists in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion, this review of the literature will provide a basis for further inquiry. Literature review According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2002), English Language Learners number over five million ELLs in the United States. This number has risen by 57% over the past ten years and shows no sign of slowing. Within the Long Island region (the focus area of this research), schools continue to experience steady growth in the number of LEP students. In 2007 the number of the students having limited English proficiency reached seven-year high. The appearance of these recent demographic changes requires increasingly greater self-examination within the educational community since teaching and learning is indeed a two-way exchange. The proliferation of professional literature throughout the educational community is evidence that the shifting demographic is being explored, and hopefully addressed in a number of ways. According to Ballyntyne, Sanderman and Levy (2008), more and more teachers of mainstream general education classes, who normally do not have special training in ESOL or bilingual education, are faced with the challenge of educating these children. While research exploring the perspective of ELLs is abundant (Cummins, 2000; Fu, 1995; Harklau, 1994, 1999, 2000; Lucas,1997; Lucas, Henze, Donato, 1990; Mace-Matluck, Alexander-Kasparik, Queen, 1998; Valdes, 2001), research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion strikingly absent. This section will examine the insights which can be gained from the existing research as a basis for further research. Attitudes Toward Inclusion Although there has been relatively little research in the area of teacher attitudes toward ELL inclusion, a number of qualitative studies exploring the schooling experiences of ELLs have, at least peripherally, addressed the subject. Those teachers chronicled in the studies were portrayed as holding negative, antipathetic attitudes (Fu, 1995; Olsen, 1997; Verplatse; Valdes, 1998, 2001). There were also some positive, welcoming attitudes noted however (Harklau, 2000; Reeves, 2004; Fu, 1995). Olson (1997) conducted an ethnographic study of a California high school, which had seen large demographic changes in a 20-year period. At the time of her research, the school population had shifted from 75 percent to 33 percent over a 20-year period. The remaining students were 26 percent Hispanic, 14 percent African American and 26 percent Asian. About half the students spoke a language other than English at home. The racial composition of the staff was mostly white. Based upon the study, Olsen concluded that typical to the process of Americanization, newcomers to these United States in our high schools undergo academic marginalization and separation. She asserts that there is pressure to become English-speaking and to drop ones native language in order to participate in the academic and social life of the high school. In his study, Fu (1995) concurs, observing that English teachers and untrained ESL tutors used methodologies and had attitudes which could be characterized as typical. Most showed strict adherence to curricular demands, appeared frustrated by the additional workload or lower standards the students possibly represented for them, and in the field of second language acquisition, lacked adequate understanding. Fu further noted that the teachers had low expectations, gave complicated explanations, lacked sufficient time, and used outdated approaches. Valdes (1998), who reached similar conclusions, observed four students within classroom interactions, interviewed school personnel, and conducted independent, formal assessments of Spanish and English language development at the beginning and end of each academic year when possible. Valdes (1998) argues that English language teaching for most immigrant students in the United States is ineffective because it is rarely meaningful or purposeful; uses outdated methods; is often taught by untrained, if well-intentioned, teachers; and erroneously places blame for lack of progress on the student. Fu (1995) suggests that second language learners from the United States are often perceived by teachers as inferior in comparison to English language students who are of a different class. Teacher perceptions of ELLs can affect educational outcomes in a number of ways. This is supported by Harklau (1999) who conducted a study of about 100 ESL/LEP students in a suburban high school in northern California over 3 years. The research compared their experiences in mainstream content classes and ESL classes. She concluded that tracking of ESL learners into low-track content classes can have serious long-term negative educational and occupational consequences. She concludes that much greater interaction between mainstream and ESL teachers is needed. Although teachers in the above studies, were generally found holding ambivalent or inhospitable attitudes (Harklau,1999; Verplaetse,1998), there were notable exceptions. According to Fu (1995), when some teachers were able to achieve curricular goals by allowing the students their own personal and cultural connections to the material, they were gratified by the results. It has been suggested by researchers that a number of factors that could be influential in how teacher attitudes are determined, whether they be welcoming or unwelcoming in nature. Reeves (2004) notes three categories which emerge as preeminent: (a) teacher perceptions of the impact of ELL inclusion on themselves, (b) impact of inclusion on the learning environment, and (c) teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs themselves. In a study by Youngs (1999), teachers cite a chronic lack of time to address Ells unique classroom needs. Additionally there exists an apprehension among some teachers based upon the perception that workloads will become unmanageable when ELLs are integrated into the mainstream classes. Verplaetse (1998) adds that some professionals expressed feelings of inadequacy to work with ELLs. The impact of inclusion on the classroom learning environment, has lead to teacher concerns about the possibility that ELLs will in some way hinder class progress through the curri culum (Youngs, 2001), or may even create inequities in educational opportunities for the students as a whole (Platt, Harper, Mendoza, 2003; Reeves, 2004; Schmidt, 2000). More recently subject-area teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs have become emergent topics of research, including an unwillingness to work with low-proficiency ELLs as well as misconceptions about the processes of second-language acquisition (Olsen,1997; Reeves, 2004; 2000). Additionally, assumptions about the race and ethnicity (both positive and negative) of ELLs are cited (Harklau, 2000; Valdes, 2001). It is important to note that all of the aforementioned studies were qualitative in nature. Furthermore, the number of teachers as participants was small; few focused primarily upon mainstream teachers. In their quantitative study of 143 middle school teachers, Youngs and Youngs (2001) conducted an investigated the attitudes of mainstream teachers toward ESL students in middle and high schools. In the mainstream, they conclude the most pervasive attitudes toward teaching an ESL student in the mainstream ranged from neutral to slightly positive. Gitlin, Buenda, Crosland, Doumbia (2003) conducted a qualitative study observed 5 ESL teachers, 10 white students, the ESL program director, and a school administrator. Their interviews centered on how these individuals viewed the ESL program, classroom practices, and cultural relations in the school. They identified and analyzed documents on extracurricular participation by ESL students, on school discipline, and on busing policies. In characterizing teacher attitudes, the researchers concluded that Many teachers equate cultural difference with cultural deficiency, a stance that typically leads them to stereotype students as having problems to fix and may lead to less satisfaction and sense of success in teaching (Gitlin, Buendia, Crosland, Doumbia,2003). In addition to lack of experience and training, matters are compounded by a lack of additional communication with ESL teachers. Attitudes Toward Modification According to Valdes (2001), the growing acceptance of an inclusion model for meeting the needs of ELLs is due at least due in part to an increased emphasis on accountability and standards that has been further driven by what Nieto (2002) asserts is a long history of exclusionary schooling, characterized by programs which are peripheral in nature. Historically, the traditional ESL model placed students in ESL courses where the focus was upon sheltered instruction, and recieved limited access to content-oriented curriculum needed to meet their educational needs or to fulfill graduation requirements. Research however suggests that this approach runs counter to inclusion. Harklaus (1994) study reveals that the ESL instruction which was provided did not match ESL students academic needs in mainstream classrooms and that content-area classrooms were not matched with ESLs needs. Harklau (1994) observes that the curriculum of ESL and mainstream classes was disconnected and that the mainstrea m classes failed to engage ESL students in academic language learning. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) note that programs which are well-implemented, cognitively challenging, not segregated, are key to ESL students academic success. Nieto (2002) adds that education should be adapted or modified to meet the needs of ELLs. For an educational model to be inclusive, it must provide equitable access to curriculum, while simultaneously providing for the multi-lingual array of learners i.e. educational methods must make content understandable for students learning English while remaining effective for English-proficient students. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) however, report that high school content area teachers were seldom found to adjust instruction to make curriculum comprehensible for ELL students. Harklau (1994) observes that ELL students had difficulty understanding certain types of teacher talk: Learners had particular difficulty understanding teacher talk which contained pun s or was sarcastic or ironic . . . Learners were also frustrated with teachers who habitually spoke very fast, who used frequent asides, or who were prone to sudden departures from the instructional topic at hand (Harklau, 1994, p. 249). Youngs (1999) cites that some teachers attitudes concerning modification appeared to stem frustration with lack of time, unclear expectations and lack of collaboration with ELL teachers. Attitudes Toward Professional Development Although ELLs spend the bulk of their time in content-area classrooms, little research has been conducted regarding content-area teachers attitudes toward professional development. Of the research that has been conducted, content-area teachers reported that they had limited experience with ESLs and lacked the necessary training in working with ELLs. This is supported by the findings of Youngs and Youngs (2001) study which concludes few mainstream teachers have been prepared to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (Youngs Youngs, 2001, p. 101). In an inclusive model, the majority of the students time during the school day is spent in mainstream classes, with the addition of ESL classes as needed. Nieto (2002) maintains that teachers must possess knowledge of the history of specific cultural groups they are serving in the United States. Additionally adaptation of the curriculum for English language learners is also essential. Nieto m aintains that the teacher must develop competence in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultural groups in United States schools. Researchers have also reported limited institutional supports such as guidance from the school administrators as well as lack of time and resources. Reeves (2004) study reports most content-area teachers would like to help ELLs but tended to vary in terms of their expectations for ELLs. Research also suggests considerable frustration among content-area teachers, concluding that in addition to lack of experience and training, there is also a lack of additional communication with ESL teachers. Youngs and Youngs (2001) maintain that few mainstream teachers have been prepared to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (p. 101). As cited by Reeves (2004), a study by Clair (1995) documents three teachers views of professional development. All three of Clairs participants (Grades 4, 5, and 10) opted out of voluntary in-service workshops on methods of working with ELLs. Among the reasons given for opting out were as follows: One teacher stated that the workshops presented methods and materials that were inappropriate for her classroom, while the other two subject teachers maintained already well prepared to work with ELLs The two remaining teachers, maintained that as experienced teachers of English-proficient students, they were already well prepared to work with ELLs. One possibly insightful comment by one of the teachers was, As far as teaching goes, teaching is the same no matter what kind of kids you have (Clair, 1995, p. 191). Although Clairs (1995) study, tapped data from only a small group of teachers, it provided a rationale for more extensive studies of educators attitudes toward ESL professional development based upon a larger sample. Teacher Attitudes toward Language Acquisition Research indicates that mainstream teachers often lack knowledge in the area of language acquisition. Nieto (2002) maintains that all practicing teachers need to develop knowledge in the areas of: first and second language acquisition and the socio-cultural and sociopolitical context of education in the United States. The degree to which teachers are informed in this area may indeed shape attitudes in regard to ELL learning rate and capacity. In her study, Reeves (2004) survey queried teacher perceptions of the length of time that ESL students needed to acquire English proficiency. Most (71.7%) teachers agreed that ESL students should be able to acquire English within two years of enrolling in U.S. schools (p.137). Teacher perceptions that two years is sufficient for full-language proficiency is not supported by research; this misconception may lead teachers to faulty conclusions concerning ELLs language ability, intelligence, or motivation. Although the average student can develop c onversational fluency within two to five years, research has shown that that developing fluency in more technical, academic language can take from four to seven years. This is dependent on a number of factors such as language proficiency level, age and time of arrival at school, level of academic proficiency in the native language, and the degree of support for achieving academic proficiency (Cummins, 1981, 1996; Hakuta, Butler, Witt, 2000; Thomas Collier, 1997). The review of the research literature has revealed several important factors which shape teachers attitudes of ELLs: knowledge of the history of specific cultural groups they are serving; competence in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultural groups; depth of knowledge in the area language acquisition; and the communication with the ESL teacher. CHAPTER THREE Statement of the Research Problem Despite the amount of research being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a lack of information in the educational community regarding teacher attitudes toward including English-language learners in mainstream classrooms. There exists a void in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion. As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so do teacher attitudes. Of particular interest to this researcher are the experiences of secondary teachers, especially within the Long Island region. Because this area, which despite its cultural diversity has received so little attention from the research community, the design of this study has been driven by the need to help remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional perspective. Instrumentation The instrument used was designed to measure both teacher attitudes and perceptions of the inclusion of ELLs. Its four sections correlate to the aforementioned themes previously discussed. The first section Section A- addressed teachers attitudes toward ELL and ESL inclusion. A Likert-scale was used to gauge teachers extent of agreement or disagreement with 16 statements presented in relation to that focus area. Section Bmeasured the frequency of various practices and activities among teachers with ELLs in their classrooms, in relation to coursework modification . Section C utilized open-ended questions in concerns which focused upon ELL inclusion. The rationale for this was that open-ended questions allow for more individualized responses, but they are sometimes more difficult to interpret. The Section Dgathered demographic information. I chose to remain faithful to the format of the Reeves study (2004), because unlike the study conducted by Walker, Schafer and Liams (2004), this ins trument model utilized multiple statements, rather than a singular item, to gauge teachers attitudes. Teachers strength of agreement or disagreement with survey items was measured with a 4-point, Likert-type scale. Respondents were to read each statement and check the box that most closely represents their opinions, from 1 (strongly agree), 2 (agree), 3 (disagree), or 4 (strongly disagree). The demographic data included such as subject areas, gender, years of teaching experience, and types of ELL training, native language and second-language proficiency. Pilot Study The instrument was subjected to a pilot study utilizing a separate group of 12 high school teachers in summer 2009. The rationale for this was that this group of teachers comprised an appropriate pilot study population because they bear similarities to the subject high school teachers in terms of work environments and scope of responsibilities, yet since they were a distinct group, they would not contaminate the ultimate study population. Because the ages and work experiences of pilot study teachers were similar to those of their counterparts, their reaction to the survey was a useful predictor of the surveys readability and content validity. Definition of terms: Bi-lingual: The ability to speak two languages easily and naturally ESL: English as a second language ELL: English language learner, TESOL: teaching English for speakers of other languages Mainstream: Mainstream in the context of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the majority of students. Validity of the Instrument The pilot study was used to assess the surveys readability and as a predictor of content validity. Pilot study participants were asked to complete the following survey. They then answered questions formulated to give them the opportunity to report their attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion accurately and fully. This survey uses a 4-point Likert-type scale, 1 (strongly agree), 2 (agree), 3, (disagree), and 4 (strongly disagree). Did the surveys format adequately allow you to express your opinion? If not, explain. Were any items on the survey unclear to you? Indicate and explain if any. Which, if any, items did you find difficult to answer? Indicate and explain if any. In your opinion, which, if any, items on the survey display a bias on the part of the research? Explain. Provide any additional comments that you would like to make. Analysis of respondents comments to the five survey questions was used to reduce the likelihood of any pattern of misunderstanding for any given item and to assess respondents understanding of, or ability to respond to, survey items. Participants and Setting All subject-area teachers from 3 district high schools within a 25 mile radius of this researcher were asked to participate in the survey by mail. The faculties chosen for participation in the study came from the 3 high schools with the largest population of ESL students during the 2008-2009 school year. This was determined by use of public domain resources (www.city-data.com). School A enrolled 24 LEP (limited-English proficiency) students, School B enrolled 26 LEP students, School C enrolled 16 LEP students . This study included high schools with the largest ESL student populations to access the largest number of teachers who had worked with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were selected remotely via mail and/or e-mail during the month of July 2009. Data Analysis Survey data was analyzed descriptively. Univariate analyses of the survey data and analyses afforded an examination of the distribution of cases on only one variable at a time (Babbie,1990, p.247) identified participants attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion according to the strength of their agreement or disagreement with the survey items. The analyses included percentages, measures of central tendency, and standard deviations. To perform univariate analyses, a numeric value was assigned to each response in the Likert scale-1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (agree), and 4 (strongly agree). Analysis of the numeric data will be performed with SPSS statistical software. Assumptions In the course of the research study, certain assumptions were made. The following are those which were intrinsic to this study: It was assumed that during this study, participants gender would not significantly affect their perceptions. It was assumed that all respondents would answer all survey questions honestly and to the best of their abilities It was assumed that the sample is representative of the population The instrument has validity and has measured the desired constructs. Impact of ELL Inclusion on Teaching Impact of ELL Inclusion on Teaching CHAPTER ONE Introduction Over the course of time, major laws, policy documents and landmark decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court as well as other federal and state courts regarding bilingual education have shaped educational policy in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, a response to Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), established the constitutional basis for the educational rights of language minority students. Within a decade, Title VI Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in federally funded programs. Subsequently cited in many court cases, it basically stated that a student has a right to meaningful and effective instruction. In 1974 the US Supreme Court reaffirmed the 1970 Memorandum regarding denial of access and participation in an educational program due to inability to speak or understand English. This action was the result of the Lau vs. Nichols class action suit brought by Chinese speaking students in San Francisco against the school district in 1974. There is no equality of treatment by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers and curriculum, for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education. The memorandum further affirmed that Basic English skills are at the very core of what public schools teach. Imposition of a requirement that, before a child can effectively participate in the educational program, he must already have acquired those basic skills is to make a mockery of public education (Lau vs. Nichols, 1974). In accordance with what are known as the Lau Remedies, in 1975 the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) established some basic guidelines for schools with Limited English Proficient (LEP) students. Although there has been much change in terms of public policy, the ultimate challenge of implementation rests upon the teacher. Throughout the United States public school teachers are challenged to meet the needs of an ever-increasing number of English-language learner (ELL) population. By the turn of this last century, the population of students identified as limited English proficient (LEP) has grown exponentially. From 1995 to 2001 alone, the LEP population grew approximately 105% nationwide (Kindler, 2002). According to recent estimates there are 4.5 million LEP students are currently enrolled in K-12 public schools in the United States. U.S. Census Bureau estimates indicate a continued trend of linguistic diversification in the years ahead (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Due to a linguistic shift the student population is experiencing, the educational community has had to fix its focus upon multilingual classrooms, and research set in multilingual classrooms has risen in importance. While there are specialists who work with limited or non-English speaking students initially, the students integration into a m ultilingual i.e. mainstream classroom is essential. Hence, teacher attitudes are an important consideration in terms of relevant professional preparation. Statement of the Research Problem Despite the amount of research being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a lack of information in the educational community regarding teacher attitudes toward including English-language learners in mainstream classrooms. There exists a void in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion. As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes. As members of the communities they live in, teachers cannot help but be influenced by dominant societal attitudes. When teachers internalize dominant societal messages, they bring them directly into their schools and classrooms. School administrators, other school staff and parents all internalize societal messages, creating a school ethos that mirrors that of the community and the dominant order of society at large (Walker, Schafer and Liams, 2004). Of particular interest to this researcher are the experiences of secondary teachers, especially within the Long Island region. Because this area, which despite its cultural diversity has received so little attention from the research community, the design of this study will be driven by the need to help remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional perspective. Purpose of the Research The general purpose of this study therefore has been to broaden the existing body of knowledge by identifying teacher perceptions of the impact of ELL inclusion upon their teaching, measure teachers perceived impact of inclusion on the teaching environment, and assess teacher attitudes concerning ELLs. This study also provides data which highlights areas which require attention or resolution. Research Questions Upon review of two studies, one by Reeves (2004), and another by Walker, Schafer and Liams (2004) of secondary teachers experiences with ELL inclusion, questions were developed to examine secondary teachers attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion in mainstream classes. Upon review of these studies four significant themes surfaced. The Reeves study, albeit larger in scale, provided a sound basis for this treatment. Those salient themes became the following research questions which have guided this study: 1. Inclusion in mainstream classes: What are teacher attitudes toward ELL inclusion in mainstream classes? 2. Modification of coursework for ELLs: What are teacher attitudes toward the modification of coursework for ELLs? 3. ESL professional development: What are teacher attitudes toward ESL professional development? 4. Teacher perceptions of second-language acquisition processes: What are teacher perceptions of second-language acquisition processes? (Reeves, 2004) Definition of Terms There are several terms that need to be defined for clarity of understanding. These are: Bi-lingual: The ability to speak two languages easily and naturally ESL: English as a second language ELL: English language learner, TESOL: Teaching English for speakers of other languages Mainstream: Mainstream in the context of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the majority of students. Participants and Setting All subject-area teachers were from 3 district high schools within a 25 mile radius of this researcher have participated in the survey by mail. The faculties chosen for participation in the study were from the three high schools with the largest population of ESL students during the 2008-2009 school years. This was determined by use of public domain resources (www.city-data.com). High schools with the largest ESL student populations were identified to enable access to the largest number of teachers who had working with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were surveyed remotely via mail during the month of July 2009. CHAPTER TWO As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes. Although there exists a void exists in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion, this review of the literature will provide a basis for further inquiry. Literature review According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2002), English Language Learners number over five million ELLs in the United States. This number has risen by 57% over the past ten years and shows no sign of slowing. Within the Long Island region (the focus area of this research), schools continue to experience steady growth in the number of LEP students. In 2007 the number of the students having limited English proficiency reached seven-year high. The appearance of these recent demographic changes requires increasingly greater self-examination within the educational community since teaching and learning is indeed a two-way exchange. The proliferation of professional literature throughout the educational community is evidence that the shifting demographic is being explored, and hopefully addressed in a number of ways. According to Ballyntyne, Sanderman and Levy (2008), more and more teachers of mainstream general education classes, who normally do not have special training in ESOL or bilingual education, are faced with the challenge of educating these children. While research exploring the perspective of ELLs is abundant (Cummins, 2000; Fu, 1995; Harklau, 1994, 1999, 2000; Lucas,1997; Lucas, Henze, Donato, 1990; Mace-Matluck, Alexander-Kasparik, Queen, 1998; Valdes, 2001), research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion strikingly absent. This section will examine the insights which can be gained from the existing research as a basis for further research. Attitudes Toward Inclusion Although there has been relatively little research in the area of teacher attitudes toward ELL inclusion, a number of qualitative studies exploring the schooling experiences of ELLs have, at least peripherally, addressed the subject. Those teachers chronicled in the studies were portrayed as holding negative, antipathetic attitudes (Fu, 1995; Olsen, 1997; Verplatse; Valdes, 1998, 2001). There were also some positive, welcoming attitudes noted however (Harklau, 2000; Reeves, 2004; Fu, 1995). Olson (1997) conducted an ethnographic study of a California high school, which had seen large demographic changes in a 20-year period. At the time of her research, the school population had shifted from 75 percent to 33 percent over a 20-year period. The remaining students were 26 percent Hispanic, 14 percent African American and 26 percent Asian. About half the students spoke a language other than English at home. The racial composition of the staff was mostly white. Based upon the study, Olsen concluded that typical to the process of Americanization, newcomers to these United States in our high schools undergo academic marginalization and separation. She asserts that there is pressure to become English-speaking and to drop ones native language in order to participate in the academic and social life of the high school. In his study, Fu (1995) concurs, observing that English teachers and untrained ESL tutors used methodologies and had attitudes which could be characterized as typical. Most showed strict adherence to curricular demands, appeared frustrated by the additional workload or lower standards the students possibly represented for them, and in the field of second language acquisition, lacked adequate understanding. Fu further noted that the teachers had low expectations, gave complicated explanations, lacked sufficient time, and used outdated approaches. Valdes (1998), who reached similar conclusions, observed four students within classroom interactions, interviewed school personnel, and conducted independent, formal assessments of Spanish and English language development at the beginning and end of each academic year when possible. Valdes (1998) argues that English language teaching for most immigrant students in the United States is ineffective because it is rarely meaningful or purposeful; uses outdated methods; is often taught by untrained, if well-intentioned, teachers; and erroneously places blame for lack of progress on the student. Fu (1995) suggests that second language learners from the United States are often perceived by teachers as inferior in comparison to English language students who are of a different class. Teacher perceptions of ELLs can affect educational outcomes in a number of ways. This is supported by Harklau (1999) who conducted a study of about 100 ESL/LEP students in a suburban high school in northern California over 3 years. The research compared their experiences in mainstream content classes and ESL classes. She concluded that tracking of ESL learners into low-track content classes can have serious long-term negative educational and occupational consequences. She concludes that much greater interaction between mainstream and ESL teachers is needed. Although teachers in the above studies, were generally found holding ambivalent or inhospitable attitudes (Harklau,1999; Verplaetse,1998), there were notable exceptions. According to Fu (1995), when some teachers were able to achieve curricular goals by allowing the students their own personal and cultural connections to the material, they were gratified by the results. It has been suggested by researchers that a number of factors that could be influential in how teacher attitudes are determined, whether they be welcoming or unwelcoming in nature. Reeves (2004) notes three categories which emerge as preeminent: (a) teacher perceptions of the impact of ELL inclusion on themselves, (b) impact of inclusion on the learning environment, and (c) teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs themselves. In a study by Youngs (1999), teachers cite a chronic lack of time to address Ells unique classroom needs. Additionally there exists an apprehension among some teachers based upon the perception that workloads will become unmanageable when ELLs are integrated into the mainstream classes. Verplaetse (1998) adds that some professionals expressed feelings of inadequacy to work with ELLs. The impact of inclusion on the classroom learning environment, has lead to teacher concerns about the possibility that ELLs will in some way hinder class progress through the curri culum (Youngs, 2001), or may even create inequities in educational opportunities for the students as a whole (Platt, Harper, Mendoza, 2003; Reeves, 2004; Schmidt, 2000). More recently subject-area teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs have become emergent topics of research, including an unwillingness to work with low-proficiency ELLs as well as misconceptions about the processes of second-language acquisition (Olsen,1997; Reeves, 2004; 2000). Additionally, assumptions about the race and ethnicity (both positive and negative) of ELLs are cited (Harklau, 2000; Valdes, 2001). It is important to note that all of the aforementioned studies were qualitative in nature. Furthermore, the number of teachers as participants was small; few focused primarily upon mainstream teachers. In their quantitative study of 143 middle school teachers, Youngs and Youngs (2001) conducted an investigated the attitudes of mainstream teachers toward ESL students in middle and high schools. In the mainstream, they conclude the most pervasive attitudes toward teaching an ESL student in the mainstream ranged from neutral to slightly positive. Gitlin, Buenda, Crosland, Doumbia (2003) conducted a qualitative study observed 5 ESL teachers, 10 white students, the ESL program director, and a school administrator. Their interviews centered on how these individuals viewed the ESL program, classroom practices, and cultural relations in the school. They identified and analyzed documents on extracurricular participation by ESL students, on school discipline, and on busing policies. In characterizing teacher attitudes, the researchers concluded that Many teachers equate cultural difference with cultural deficiency, a stance that typically leads them to stereotype students as having problems to fix and may lead to less satisfaction and sense of success in teaching (Gitlin, Buendia, Crosland, Doumbia,2003). In addition to lack of experience and training, matters are compounded by a lack of additional communication with ESL teachers. Attitudes Toward Modification According to Valdes (2001), the growing acceptance of an inclusion model for meeting the needs of ELLs is due at least due in part to an increased emphasis on accountability and standards that has been further driven by what Nieto (2002) asserts is a long history of exclusionary schooling, characterized by programs which are peripheral in nature. Historically, the traditional ESL model placed students in ESL courses where the focus was upon sheltered instruction, and recieved limited access to content-oriented curriculum needed to meet their educational needs or to fulfill graduation requirements. Research however suggests that this approach runs counter to inclusion. Harklaus (1994) study reveals that the ESL instruction which was provided did not match ESL students academic needs in mainstream classrooms and that content-area classrooms were not matched with ESLs needs. Harklau (1994) observes that the curriculum of ESL and mainstream classes was disconnected and that the mainstrea m classes failed to engage ESL students in academic language learning. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) note that programs which are well-implemented, cognitively challenging, not segregated, are key to ESL students academic success. Nieto (2002) adds that education should be adapted or modified to meet the needs of ELLs. For an educational model to be inclusive, it must provide equitable access to curriculum, while simultaneously providing for the multi-lingual array of learners i.e. educational methods must make content understandable for students learning English while remaining effective for English-proficient students. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) however, report that high school content area teachers were seldom found to adjust instruction to make curriculum comprehensible for ELL students. Harklau (1994) observes that ELL students had difficulty understanding certain types of teacher talk: Learners had particular difficulty understanding teacher talk which contained pun s or was sarcastic or ironic . . . Learners were also frustrated with teachers who habitually spoke very fast, who used frequent asides, or who were prone to sudden departures from the instructional topic at hand (Harklau, 1994, p. 249). Youngs (1999) cites that some teachers attitudes concerning modification appeared to stem frustration with lack of time, unclear expectations and lack of collaboration with ELL teachers. Attitudes Toward Professional Development Although ELLs spend the bulk of their time in content-area classrooms, little research has been conducted regarding content-area teachers attitudes toward professional development. Of the research that has been conducted, content-area teachers reported that they had limited experience with ESLs and lacked the necessary training in working with ELLs. This is supported by the findings of Youngs and Youngs (2001) study which concludes few mainstream teachers have been prepared to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (Youngs Youngs, 2001, p. 101). In an inclusive model, the majority of the students time during the school day is spent in mainstream classes, with the addition of ESL classes as needed. Nieto (2002) maintains that teachers must possess knowledge of the history of specific cultural groups they are serving in the United States. Additionally adaptation of the curriculum for English language learners is also essential. Nieto m aintains that the teacher must develop competence in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultural groups in United States schools. Researchers have also reported limited institutional supports such as guidance from the school administrators as well as lack of time and resources. Reeves (2004) study reports most content-area teachers would like to help ELLs but tended to vary in terms of their expectations for ELLs. Research also suggests considerable frustration among content-area teachers, concluding that in addition to lack of experience and training, there is also a lack of additional communication with ESL teachers. Youngs and Youngs (2001) maintain that few mainstream teachers have been prepared to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (p. 101). As cited by Reeves (2004), a study by Clair (1995) documents three teachers views of professional development. All three of Clairs participants (Grades 4, 5, and 10) opted out of voluntary in-service workshops on methods of working with ELLs. Among the reasons given for opting out were as follows: One teacher stated that the workshops presented methods and materials that were inappropriate for her classroom, while the other two subject teachers maintained already well prepared to work with ELLs The two remaining teachers, maintained that as experienced teachers of English-proficient students, they were already well prepared to work with ELLs. One possibly insightful comment by one of the teachers was, As far as teaching goes, teaching is the same no matter what kind of kids you have (Clair, 1995, p. 191). Although Clairs (1995) study, tapped data from only a small group of teachers, it provided a rationale for more extensive studies of educators attitudes toward ESL professional development based upon a larger sample. Teacher Attitudes toward Language Acquisition Research indicates that mainstream teachers often lack knowledge in the area of language acquisition. Nieto (2002) maintains that all practicing teachers need to develop knowledge in the areas of: first and second language acquisition and the socio-cultural and sociopolitical context of education in the United States. The degree to which teachers are informed in this area may indeed shape attitudes in regard to ELL learning rate and capacity. In her study, Reeves (2004) survey queried teacher perceptions of the length of time that ESL students needed to acquire English proficiency. Most (71.7%) teachers agreed that ESL students should be able to acquire English within two years of enrolling in U.S. schools (p.137). Teacher perceptions that two years is sufficient for full-language proficiency is not supported by research; this misconception may lead teachers to faulty conclusions concerning ELLs language ability, intelligence, or motivation. Although the average student can develop c onversational fluency within two to five years, research has shown that that developing fluency in more technical, academic language can take from four to seven years. This is dependent on a number of factors such as language proficiency level, age and time of arrival at school, level of academic proficiency in the native language, and the degree of support for achieving academic proficiency (Cummins, 1981, 1996; Hakuta, Butler, Witt, 2000; Thomas Collier, 1997). The review of the research literature has revealed several important factors which shape teachers attitudes of ELLs: knowledge of the history of specific cultural groups they are serving; competence in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultural groups; depth of knowledge in the area language acquisition; and the communication with the ESL teacher. CHAPTER THREE Statement of the Research Problem Despite the amount of research being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a lack of information in the educational community regarding teacher attitudes toward including English-language learners in mainstream classrooms. There exists a void in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion. As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so do teacher attitudes. Of particular interest to this researcher are the experiences of secondary teachers, especially within the Long Island region. Because this area, which despite its cultural diversity has received so little attention from the research community, the design of this study has been driven by the need to help remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional perspective. Instrumentation The instrument used was designed to measure both teacher attitudes and perceptions of the inclusion of ELLs. Its four sections correlate to the aforementioned themes previously discussed. The first section Section A- addressed teachers attitudes toward ELL and ESL inclusion. A Likert-scale was used to gauge teachers extent of agreement or disagreement with 16 statements presented in relation to that focus area. Section Bmeasured the frequency of various practices and activities among teachers with ELLs in their classrooms, in relation to coursework modification . Section C utilized open-ended questions in concerns which focused upon ELL inclusion. The rationale for this was that open-ended questions allow for more individualized responses, but they are sometimes more difficult to interpret. The Section Dgathered demographic information. I chose to remain faithful to the format of the Reeves study (2004), because unlike the study conducted by Walker, Schafer and Liams (2004), this ins trument model utilized multiple statements, rather than a singular item, to gauge teachers attitudes. Teachers strength of agreement or disagreement with survey items was measured with a 4-point, Likert-type scale. Respondents were to read each statement and check the box that most closely represents their opinions, from 1 (strongly agree), 2 (agree), 3 (disagree), or 4 (strongly disagree). The demographic data included such as subject areas, gender, years of teaching experience, and types of ELL training, native language and second-language proficiency. Pilot Study The instrument was subjected to a pilot study utilizing a separate group of 12 high school teachers in summer 2009. The rationale for this was that this group of teachers comprised an appropriate pilot study population because they bear similarities to the subject high school teachers in terms of work environments and scope of responsibilities, yet since they were a distinct group, they would not contaminate the ultimate study population. Because the ages and work experiences of pilot study teachers were similar to those of their counterparts, their reaction to the survey was a useful predictor of the surveys readability and content validity. Definition of terms: Bi-lingual: The ability to speak two languages easily and naturally ESL: English as a second language ELL: English language learner, TESOL: teaching English for speakers of other languages Mainstream: Mainstream in the context of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the majority of students. Validity of the Instrument The pilot study was used to assess the surveys readability and as a predictor of content validity. Pilot study participants were asked to complete the following survey. They then answered questions formulated to give them the opportunity to report their attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion accurately and fully. This survey uses a 4-point Likert-type scale, 1 (strongly agree), 2 (agree), 3, (disagree), and 4 (strongly disagree). Did the surveys format adequately allow you to express your opinion? If not, explain. Were any items on the survey unclear to you? Indicate and explain if any. Which, if any, items did you find difficult to answer? Indicate and explain if any. In your opinion, which, if any, items on the survey display a bias on the part of the research? Explain. Provide any additional comments that you would like to make. Analysis of respondents comments to the five survey questions was used to reduce the likelihood of any pattern of misunderstanding for any given item and to assess respondents understanding of, or ability to respond to, survey items. Participants and Setting All subject-area teachers from 3 district high schools within a 25 mile radius of this researcher were asked to participate in the survey by mail. The faculties chosen for participation in the study came from the 3 high schools with the largest population of ESL students during the 2008-2009 school year. This was determined by use of public domain resources (www.city-data.com). School A enrolled 24 LEP (limited-English proficiency) students, School B enrolled 26 LEP students, School C enrolled 16 LEP students . This study included high schools with the largest ESL student populations to access the largest number of teachers who had worked with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were selected remotely via mail and/or e-mail during the month of July 2009. Data Analysis Survey data was analyzed descriptively. Univariate analyses of the survey data and analyses afforded an examination of the distribution of cases on only one variable at a time (Babbie,1990, p.247) identified participants attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion according to the strength of their agreement or disagreement with the survey items. The analyses included percentages, measures of central tendency, and standard deviations. To perform univariate analyses, a numeric value was assigned to each response in the Likert scale-1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (agree), and 4 (strongly agree). Analysis of the numeric data will be performed with SPSS statistical software. Assumptions In the course of the research study, certain assumptions were made. The following are those which were intrinsic to this study: It was assumed that during this study, participants gender would not significantly affect their perceptions. It was assumed that all respondents would answer all survey questions honestly and to the best of their abilities It was assumed that the sample is representative of the population The instrument has validity and has measured the desired constructs.